p-N. Jos Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). stretching out of arms), (Sem, Eg., Ch., Cush, innovation: 'set on top of' > 'cover'), (Sem., Eg. [115] James P. Allen has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals. p-Katloid p-Jen [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". >>14700332 The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. Upload your video About the author p-North Bauchi [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Afroasiatic. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. [76], There is no consensus where the original homeland (Urheimat) of the first Afroasiatic speakers was located. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. [27] The first is the Numidian language, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the Libyco-Berber alphabet, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. Since there is written data available from this region, it is easier to reconstruct ancient roots and find common characteristics (ELL, p.51). 6), (Eg., Sem., Cush. [193][194], Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. *y: adjective suffix: 3. [83], A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic,[78] most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. Berkeley: University of California Press. In Afro-Asiatic languages: Origins originated is referred to as Proto-Afro-Asiatic. Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. [103], A form of long-distance consonant assimilation known as consonant harmony is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization, palatalization, and labialization. Mimi-N "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. innovation: derivation of n. for 'hand'), (Eg., Sem. p-Jukunoid US$62.00 (softcover). The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. An Encyclopedia of Language. [153][168][h], Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by using pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number and a verbal adjective. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. The reconstructed consonants for Proto-Afro-Asiatic are p and b, t and d, and k and g. The Egyptian bw meaning place and the Semitic bi meaning in or from are believed to be from the reconstructed root *b- meaning foot or place (ELL, p.51). The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. The "s-causative" may be reflected in Hausa (as -r), however this may be a language internal development. innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. [155], The degree to which the AA verbal root was triliteral (having three consonants) is debated. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by August Ludwig von Schlzer in 1781. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. [94], Several Afroasiatic languages have large numbers of consonants, and it is likely that Proto-Afroasiatic did as well:[95] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes,[96] while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. suff. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses. Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary. To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). in East Africa. p-Guang Like in the English example, feet foot, vowels make the difference between separate words. Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. London, Bloomsbury, 1998. [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. p-Lakka [117] Christopher Ehret proposed a five vowel system with long and short a, e, o, i, and u. innovation: n. 'morning' by addition of *r n. Beboid Semitic and Berber are quite closely related, and both are more distantly connected to Cushitic. This language family has now been renamed Afro-Asiatic, because this term is less culture specific (Dalby, p.6). 1 Afro-Asiatic Language Family. [97] All Afroasiatic languages contain stops and fricatives; some branches have additional types of consonants such as affricates and lateral consonants. [27] The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. innovation: as synonym for #505), (vowel reconstruction uncertain: PAA *u, *ee, or *oo are also possible here; contrary to earlier views, this is surely a distinct root from #503), (Eg., Sem. [3] The phylum has six branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, Semitic, and Omotic. + stem; PS *lisn 'tongue' is a separate and distinct derivation from the same verb root), (Sem., Eg., Ch. p-Cangin The Afroasiatic language family is thought to have originated in the Horn of Africa and the Arabian Peninsula around 15,000 years ago. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. Proto-Nostratic would have been spoken between 15,000 and 12,000 BCE, in the Epipaleolithic period, close to the end of the last glacial period. Gule common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . [174] The Semitic genitive case in -i is probably related to "nisba" adjective derivation. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . innovation: 'not want' > 'not need,' hence 'be sated'), (Eg., Sem. [99] envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). suff. Root Structure Patterning in Proto-Kartvelian. South Bauchi Ongota [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. [109] Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. p-Oti-Volta (p-E. Oti-Voltap-C. Oti-Volta) innovation: generalization of pl. V. V. ven. [15] Hamitic was coined by Ernest Renan in 1855, to refer to languages that seemed similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. [7] Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. ; Eg., Sem. Anaang [166], The so-called "Nisba" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1994. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo There is no general consensus over the location of the Urheimat, the original homeland from which began the migrations into the present locations of the speakers. p-Central Chadic If you are not satisfied with 225345861639 Pp. [99] In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language Tigrinya, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme [p] at all. [32] It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. innovation: integration of *t dur. [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. [40] Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-Natufian Culture, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. *y: attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix: 2a. Well-known Afroasiatic languages include Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Somali, Tuareg, and Hausa. Additional Proposed PAA Roots; Appendix 4. innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. [159] The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. suff. p-Yoruboid innovation: meaning shift, from avoiding per se to feeling a need or reason to avoid), to wear out, be used up, cease to function, (Eg., Cush., Ch. [167] These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual languages varies. [9] ( i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. innovation: 'lift' > 'carry', (Eg., Sem., Cush, shared innovations: *su, *usu 'he'; *si, *isi 'she': see Chap. [135] In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (apophony) and/or insertion (epenthesis). In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. p-Nupoid [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". May 29th, 2020 - grammar lithuanian is a richly inflected language that has retained some of the plex morphology of its ancestral proto indo european nouns nouns are marked for gender number and case that are fused into one ending there are two genders masculine and feminine with a few neuter nouns there are three numbers singular dual and plural Adapted from Ruhlen 1987. ), (root seen also in #984 + *n non-fin. p-Jebel [144], A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state." p-Mumuye [33] Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists. : *itsim-), (2nd root shape: possible old tr. p-Surmic Benfys title was later inverted to make Hamito-Semitic but over time racial connotations were applied to this name (Voegelin, p.13). BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. p-Ring [77] Roger Blench writes that the debate has "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high civilization". [91] Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. innovation: narrowing of application of v. to angry calling out), (Sem., Cush, innovation: > n. 'covering' > 'rind, bark'), (root #447+ * iter. The modern word "Hebrew" is derived from the word "Ivri" (plural "Ivrim"; English: Hebrews), one of several names for the Israelite (Jewish and Samaritan) people. This original biblical genealogy reflected political rather than linguistic realities: thus the Canaanites are descendants of Ham, although their language is closely related to Hebrew, and the Elamites are descendants of Shem, although their language is not related to Hebrew at all. [6] [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. Tiefo Akpes [190] Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from Nilotic languages, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from Ethiopian Semitic languages. innovation: added sense, 'to listen to'), (Ch., Sem., Berber innovation: specialized meaning 'tooth'; but note presence of that meaning isolated in single Omotic language), (innovation: Sem., Ch. [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'. [89] Igor Diakonoff argues that the requirement to begin with a vowel goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. [69] This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly cultural superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. [121] This structure is particularly visible in the verbs,[153] and is particularly noticeable in the triliteral Semitic verb. 28 July 1999. Archaeology and the study of oral traditions helps linguists find connections between language families. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. Pr. [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. p-Heiban Proto-Afroasiatic English gloss Notes 1. [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. S. SC Sem. as ELL). [75] Consequently, scholars have offered estimates for when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken that range between 18,000 and 8,000 BCE. and touches on external evidence from Afroasiatic cognate languages. . fort. [165] This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions. [13] Each of Noah's sons was traditionally presented as being the common ancestor of several apparently-related people groups, with Shem understood by the original audience as being the common ancestor of the Jews, Assyrians, and Arameans, among others, and Ham seen as the ancestor of the Egyptians and Cushites. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System" In The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, 105-108. [37][34] Only one Cushitic language, Oromo, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include Somali, Saho-Afar, Hadiyya, and Sidaama. Ekoid There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. n. pref. ), (root #695 + *f iter.? [138][177] Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape -*ay in addition to -*iy in some cases. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. ), (Eg., Sem. 2.11. innovation: addition of *t n. [68] On the other hand, the classification relied on anthropological and racial features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. rather than the subject and object. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Dictionary - Vladimir E. Orel 2015-11-02 This dictionary is a fundamental source of information on the extinct proto-language of the ancient Hamito-Semites, the Proto-Hamito-Semitic language, and . The prefixes ti and it mean she. Tula-Waja Theodor Benfy found that Egyptian and Semitic languages were similar in 1844, and he classified them under the Semito-Hamitic language family. [131], Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity),[133] while in others, plural forms are ungendered. [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. 2.10. [196][164] Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple sound correspondences. [84] Prominent in this camp is the linguist Alexander Militarev, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the Levant and subsequently spread to Africa. p-Manjaku redup. * "The Origins of Third Consonants in Semitic Roots: An Internal Reconstruction (Applied to Arabic)," Journal of Afroasiatic Languages 3, 2 (1989): 109-202. shared innovation: 'move, take' > 'take hold of'), (Cush., Ch., Eg., Sem. These include Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, Altaic and Dravidian (Atlas, p.74). See . [133], A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Bariba Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . Item Weight : 11.2 ounces Dimensions : 5.75 x 0.75 x 9 inches Best Sellers Rank: #1,696,866 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books) #2,811 in Comparative Religion (Books) Customer Reviews: 3 ratings Videos Help others learn more about this product by uploading a video! (Though I found no mention of the origin of Semito-, it is possible that this name comes from Shem, another son of Noah). suff. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. [68] Greenberg also proposed that Hausa was part of a Chadic branch of Afroasiatic, and that Afroasiatic consisted of five main branches, Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. [142][143] Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. p-Mande (p-W. Mandep-Mandekanp-Niger-Voltap-S. Mande) North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. to domestic animals in general, then narrowing in PS and Eg. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. PSom-III. [20], The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. WCh WOT Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. [48] Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, Western Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. 'to come so close as to brush against'), (Eg., Sem. of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. Proto-Afroasiatic is a language and NOT an ethnicity: Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wikipedia There is no proof where the Afroasiatic languages originated, but the oldest Afroasiatic language writing has been found in Egypt and dated 6000 years. The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. Author: Martin Bernal Language: EnglishEdition: 1stBinding: HardcoverPages: 575Publisher: Rutgers Univ PressPublication Date: 304805601149 Shabo [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. [134] A system K (masculine), T (feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. The name Hamitic originates from Ham, one of the sons of Noah. Kunama New York: Elsevier, 1977. Abstract The paper is a new contribution to revealing the Afro-Asiatic heritage in the lexicon of the Angas-Sura group of Chadic languages by means of interbranch comparison using a.o. [25][26], There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. p-Nubian [26] The second is the Guanche language, which was formerly spoken on the Canary Islands and went extinct in the 17th century CE. Its words and roots are not directly attested in any written works, but have been reconstructed through the comparative method, which finds regular similarities between languages that cannot be explained by coincidence or word-borrowing, and extrapolates ancient forms from these similarities. ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. p-Kongo [146] Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state," and a "pronominal state." [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. p-Tuu Bendi Vol.1. p-Kuliak (Ik) [164] Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. Archaeologists and anthropologists have long viewed the Bible as mankind's best guide to prehistoric religion, however, archaeologist Klaus Schmidt had no reason to . Mimi-D [150] Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . Proto-Afro-Asiatic is generally considered the oldest accepted one, though it's not known exactly how long ago it was spoken. [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. [90] Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel. p-Nilo-Saharan in *n, as also in #323), (possible V reconstructions: *a, *aa, *e, or *o), (Sem., Eg., Ch. [29] Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be endangered of going extinct. Jalaa These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . of proto-Afroasiatic cultivation. The construct state is a special, usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). [189] In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) About us. ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. [101] The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate. Kim p-Gbaya Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago (12 to 18 kya ), that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. Central Sudanic (p-Central Sudanicp-Sara-Bongo-BagirmiSinyarBirrip-Mangbetu)
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