Answer (1 of 24): Depends for whom. Instead, there are multiple causes any one or two of which could have launched the war. However, there were limits placed on the alliance so that it was essentially defensive in character. The territories together formed what was later known as Italian Libya. The Black Hand believed that a Greater Serbia would be achieved by provoking a war with Austria-Hungary by an act of terror. World War I, the pointless war. ", assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, Learn how and when to remove this template message, railroad under construction from Istanbul to Baghdad, Historiography of the causes of World War I, "The Perception of Power: Russia in the Pre-1914 Balance", "First World War.com - Who's Who - Otto Liman von Sanders", "VII. The Anglo-Russian rapprochment, 1903-7 -- v.5. The Agadir Crisis resulted from the deployment of a substantial force of French troops into the interior of Morocco in April 1911. UK wartime Prime Minister Herbert Asquith lost a son, while future Prime Minister Andrew Bonar Law lost two. In 1887, German and Russian alignment was secured by means of a secret Reinsurance Treaty arranged by Otto von Bismarck. The Evolution of American Isolationism. An estimated nine million soldiers were killed and countless more civilians. With the formation of the informal Triple Entente, Germany began to feel encircled. The approach highlighted racist views of mankind. The Independent concluded that "such is the ridiculous and tragical situation resulting from the survival of the antiquated superstition of the 'balance of power,' that is, the theory that the prosperity of one nation was an injury to others":[6]. (That empire lasted into the 1970s.) German realignment to Austria-Hungary and Russian realignment to France, 18871892, British alignment towards France and Russia, 18981907: The Triple Entente, First Moroccan Crisis, 190506: Strengthening the Entente, Bosnian Crisis, 1908: Worsening relations of Russia and Serbia with Austria-Hungary, Italo-Turkish War: Isolation of the Ottomans, 19111912, Balkan Wars, 191213: Growth of Serbian and Russian power, Franco-Russian Alliance changes to Balkan inception scenario, 19111913, Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian irredentists, 28 June 1914, Impact of colonial rivalry and aggression on Europe in 1914. Prior to the war, there were few signs that the international economy stood for war in the summer of 1914. Michael Bishop on a new history. The Entente, in contrast to the Triple Alliance and the Franco-Russian Alliance, was not an alliance of mutual defence, and so in 1914 Britain felt free to make its own foreign policy decisions. [72], Hamilton was more critical of the view that capitalists and business leaders drove the war. Vienna issued a strident ultimatum to Serbia, and Germany took the side of the aggrieved Empire; Russia, driven by Slavic solidarity and confident that her ally France would join the fray, mobilized against Germany; and Britain, outraged by the German violation of Belgian neutrality, reluctantly came to the aid of France. The end of the naval arms race, the relaxation of colonial rivalries, and the increased diplomatic co-operation in the Balkans all resulted in an improvement in Germany's image in Britain by the eve of the war.[47]. [23] In the words of the British diplomat Arthur Nicolson, it was "far more disadvantageous to us to have an unfriendly France and Russia than an unfriendly Germany. Read about our approach to external linking. Yes, the 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, triggered a series of declarations of war. By 1897, the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. Survivors lived on with severe mental trauma. The British diplomat Arthur Nicolson wrote in May 1914, "Since I have been at the Foreign Office I have not seen such calm waters. It was because mankinds moral instinctsthis was philosopher and pacifist Bertrand Russells viewlagged behind its material wealth. Explaining the Outbreak of the First World War - Closing Conference Genve Histoire et Cit 2015; Eric Brose, "Arms Race prior to 1914, Armament Policy," in: Paul W. Schroeder, "World War I as Galloping Gertie: A Reply to Joachim Remak,", Annika Mombauer, "Guilt or Responsibility? Britain and France therefore had by far the most colonial territory at the start of the war, but this meant that the development of their domestic industries had slowed considerably, and their national wealth was now predominantly achieved through a return on financial investments (i.e., export of capital) in their colonies rather than through purchase on the global market of their domestically manufactured goods (i.e., export of commodities). Furthermore, evidence can be found from the Austro-Hungarian stock market, which responded to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand with unease but no sense of alarm and only a small decrease in share value. Both wars involved military alliances between different groups of countries. This saying was supposed to have come from senior German commanders describing brave British soldiers led by incompetent old toffs from their chateaux. Others must have justified the horrors that were all around them by insisting that it must have been for a good reason. "[57], It is true that Austro-Hungarian politics in the decades before the war were increasingly dominated by the struggle for national rights among the empire's eleven official nationalities: Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Ruthenians (Ukrainians), Poles, and Italians. Russian Revolution, also called Russian Revolution of 1917, two revolutions in 1917, the first of which, in February (March, New Style), overthrew the imperial government and the second of which, in October (November), placed the Bolsheviks in power. At the end of 1911, particularly during the Balkan Wars in 19121913, the French view changed to accept the importance of the Balkans to Russia. Generations have struggled to explain how the assassination of an uncharismatic royal in a provincial Balkan town could have unleashed such destruction. Germany had a Parliament and a powerful King (Kaiser) as did Britain. ", Sked, Alan. Although it was inevitable, the horrific loss of life was pointless. The . The Balkan wars, pt.1-2 -- v.10,pt.1. Several key factors played a part in this change of course. It could be the best of times, or the worst of times. Germany's "New Course" in foreign affairs, Weltpolitik ("world policy"), was adopted in the 1890s after Bismarck's dismissal. On the other side, at the same time that Britain and France had turned to acquiring colonies, Germany's domestic development proceeded rapidly to the point that its output had exceeded that of Britain and France by 1914, but its ability to invest its new surplus of capital was limited by the territorial dominance of the other empires. The First World war effectively broke the worlds own idea of itself, turning it on it's head and casting new players into the field, new mindsets, and new horrors for the world to face. Either way, the isolation was important because it left Germany few options but to ally itself more strongly with Austria-Hungary, leading ultimately to unconditional support for Austria-Hungary's punitive war on Serbia during the July Crisis. [23] Scenes of mass "war euphoria" were often doctored for propaganda purposes, and even the scenes which were genuine would not reflect the general population. The First World War was the worst act of political malpractice in history. [87] Social Darwinism, therefore, normalized war as an instrument of policy and justified its use. Other important long-term or structural factors that are often studied include unresolved territorial disputes, the perceived breakdown of the European balance of power,[1][2] convoluted and fragmented governance, the arms races of the previous decades, and military planning.[3]. "The sooner the better. World War One Trench Warefare. The decision of Austria-Hungary to go to war was made by the monarch, his ministers, and military leaders, with practically no representation from financial and business leaders even though Austria-Hungary was then developing rapidly. Many soldiers enjoyed WW1. Thus did the dreary steeples of Fermanagh and Tyrone (in Churchills resonant phrase) help make a local quarrel a global catastrophe. What Is Balkanization? Versailles was not harsh but was portrayed as such by Hitler, who sought to create a tidal wave of anti-Versailles sentiment on which he could then ride into power. However, before 1914, radical nationalists seeking full separation from the empire were still a small minority, and Austria-Hungary's political turbulence was more noisy than deep. The Rothschild family would go on to suffer serious losses in the war that amounted to 23% of its capital. Ferguson argues, "So decisive was the British victory in the naval arms race that it is hard to regard it as in any meaningful sense a cause of the First World War. Rather, after weeks of clumsy diplomacy, they consciously led their nations into battle. And in the summer of 1914, the British were more concerned with Belfast than the Balkans. Clark states: "The Greater Serbian vision was not just a question of government policy, however, or even of propaganda. In August 1914 The Independent magazine described the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife in June as a "deplorable but relatively insignificant" reason for which[6]. The Russians were, therefore, faced with only two options: canceling the mobilization during a crisis or moving to full mobilization, the latter of which they did on 30 July. Mulligan, William. [65] The impact of the Triple Entente was twofold: improving British relations with France and its ally, Russia, and showing the importance to Britain of good relations with Germany. So too had Britain. Men lived in the trenches for years on end, 6. But the diplomatic diversions give the reader a greater sense of contingency. 1. Even though Russia had faced massive industrial unrest . Levy, Jack S., and William Mulligan. Thus, he argues that colonies were pursued mainly as a sign of German power and prestige, rather than for profit, which could be got through trade alone. 1930): 1:290-93. Anglo-German tension. The long-term causes were the militarism, alliance system, imperialism and nationalism- MAIN. In its middle years the conflict became a triple stalemate, at once military (neither side . So was it utterly pointless, or a Great War for Civilization? Immediately after the end of hostilities, Anglo-American historians argued that Germany was solely responsible for the start of the war. Their lack of prewar planning for the partial mobilization made the Russians realize by 29 July that it would be impossible to interfere with a general mobilization. Emperor Franz Josef was 84 and so the assassination of his heir, so soon before he was likely to hand over the crown, was seen as a direct challenge to the empire. This is just another myth.During the war itself the Germans were portrayed back at home as barbarians. We had to justify what was a senseless unfolding slaughter by any means possible. The last years of peacev.11. 36 members have voted. The assassination is significant because it was perceived by Austria-Hungary as an existential challenge and so was viewed as providing a casus belli with Serbia. [29], Imperial rivalries pushed France, Germany, and Britain to compete for control of Morocco, leading to a short-lived war scare in 1911. But once again many endeavour to rewrite history and pretend that World War One was not utterly pointless. Tanks had gone from the drawing board to the battlefield in just two years, also changing war for ever. It was the bloodiest war in history to that point. Britain had the largest empire in the world and an historic monopoly on sea-trade in the Royal Navy, Russia had the second largest, and France had a modestly-sized empire. Russian Growth. Conversely, Germany had a few unprofitable colonies, and Austria-Hungary had no overseas holdings or desire to secure any. Under blue skies in Sarajevo, terrorists with shadowy links to the Serbian government killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of the rickety but splendid Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife. German isolation: a consequence of the Triple Entente? The war would be won with Russian backing. Anthony Eden lost two brothers, another brother of his was terribly wounded, and an uncle was captured. The original Franco-Russian alliance was formed to protect both France and Russia from a German attack. Some historians see Britain's alignment as principally a reaction to an assertive German foreign policy and the buildup of its navy from 1898 that led to the Anglo-German naval arms race. As a result, the British army rotated men in and out continuously. Left-wing parties, especially the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), made large gains in the 1912 German federal election. The status of Morocco had been guaranteed by international agreement, and when France attempted a great expansion of its influence there without the assent of all other signatories, Germany opposed and prompted the Moroccan Crises: the Tangier Crisis of 1905 and the Agadir Crisis of 1911. German cruiser had sunk the William P. Most disheartening of all, though, was that the war was as inevitable as it was pointless. Russia ordered a partial mobilization on 25 July against Austria-Hungary only. It was a time of extraordinary innovation. [78][79], The model suggested an explanation of why some ethnic groups, then called "races," had been for so long antagonistic, such as Germans and Slavs. Hamilton suggested that imperial ambitions may have been driven by groupthink - because every other country was doing it, policymakers would think that their country should do the same. [17], After Bismarck's removal in 1890, French efforts to isolate Germany became successful. Sidney B. Fay, "The Origins of the World War" (2nd ed. "I consider a war inevitable," declared Moltke in 1912. Scholars seeking short-term analysis focus on the summer of 1914 and ask whether the conflict could have been stopped, or instead whether deeper causes made it inevitable. In the telegram, Zimmermann proposed a military alliance between Germany, Mexico, and Japanshould the United States enter the war. One of the most important reasons to write articles that no one reads is that you can say whatever you want. The interventionists sought to use the Triple Entente to contain German expansion. 4. Some historians, such as Margaret MacMillan, believe that Germany created its own diplomatic isolation in Europe, in part by an aggressive and pointless imperial policy known as Weltpolitik. The killing spread to civilians in England and France attacked by German zeppelins. However, Schroeder endorses Fisher's basic conclusion: From 1890 on, Germany did pursue world power. [110], On historians inside Germany, she adds, "There was 'a far-reaching consensus about the special responsibility of the German Reich' in the writings of leading historians, though they differed in how they weighted Germany's role."[111]. Germany? His account of the assassinations is vivid and moving, and one winces at the ramshackle security procedures that put the archduke and his consort in harms way. The return to seventh-century standards of thought and behavior incited by the Iranian revolution of 1979 and practiced by jihadists across the Middle East. For example, Russia warned France that the alliance would not operate if the French provoked the Germans in North Africa. The war plans all included complex plans for mobilization of the armed forces, either as a prelude to war or as a deterrent. The situation was always, as the Viennese journalist Karl Kraus quipped, 'desperate but not serious'. 4. Look at the posters. So, the divergent interests require an "imperialism argument" to be specific in "interests" or "needs" that decision makers would be trying to meet. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat SMS Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir on 1 July 1911. U.S. Race Riots. They agreed to protect each other. Russian interests in Balkans and Ottoman Empire, Primacy of offensive and war by timetable. No. "An identity of opinion: Historians and July 1914.". Some folks say that our gallant Tommies died fighting for Democracy. Moreover, the Russians were again threatening British interests in Persia and India. Four years later, steel-helmeted combat teams dashed forward protected by a curtain of artillery shells. Although general narratives of the war tend to emphasize the importance of alliances in binding the major powers to act in the event of a crisis such as the July Crisis, historians such as Margaret MacMillan warn against the argument that alliances forced the Great Powers to act as they did: "What we tend to think of as fixed alliances before the First World War were nothing of the sort. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914 but with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. But many scholars argue that a confluence of factors had been creating the conditions for conflict in Europe for decades prior. Six Causes of World War I. Once the war broke out, world power became Germany's essential goal. The mobilization plans limited the scope of diplomacy, as military planners wanted to begin mobilisation as quickly as possible to avoid being caught on the defensive. Christopher Clark states: "German efforts at mediation which suggested that Austria should 'Halt in Belgrade' and use the occupation of the Serbian capital to ensure its terms were met were rendered futile by the speed of Russian preparations, which threatened to force the Germans to take counter-measures before mediation could begin to take effect. Fritz Fischer famously argued that they deliberately sought an external war to distract the population and to whip up patriotic support for the government. Rarely in history have commanders had to adapt to a more radically different technological environment. Rhetorically speaking, there was an expectation that the war would be "over by Christmas" in 1914. "The First World War and International Relations Theory: A Review of Books on the 100th Anniversary. The continental Great Powers' mobilization plans included arming and transporting millions of men and their equipment, typically by rail and to strict schedules. Germany sank many American merchant ships around the British Isles which prompted the American entry into the war. The Kettle War. Jean-Marie Mayeur, and Madeleine Rebirioux, Samuel R. Williamson Jr., "German Perceptions of the Triple Entente after 1911: Their Mounting Apprehensions Reconsidered,". One of the strongest sources of opposition to the war was from major banks, whose financial bourgeoisie regarded the army as the reserve of the aristocracy and utterly foreign to the banking universe. The wounded archduke begged his unconscious wife to stay alive for their children, but within the hour both were dead. But 100 years on we can look at these things more objectively. Clarks thesis may seem familiar; modern readers are steeped in the notion of the war as a tragedy. Citizens faced poor economic conditions, skyrocketing unemployment, political instability, and profound social change. However, the interventionists were joined by the two leading Radicals, David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. Germany's battleships had been bottled up by the Royal Navy until their crews mutinied rather than make a suicidal attack against the British fleet. Follow @BBCNewsMagazine on Twitter and on Facebook, Street fighting in Bakhmut but Russia not in control, Russian minister laughed at for Ukraine war claims. Every year, the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. [77] It gave an impetus to German assertiveness as a world economic and military power, aimed at competing with France and Britain for world power. The Nazis ovens in World War II. The Battle of the Somme, also known as the Somme Offensive, was fought during the First World War from 1 July to 18 November 1916. Ultimately, the argument boils down to if changing the series of events leading up to WWI would have influenced the decisions to go to war. Conservative estimates of the dead in the 14 . [99], The main Russian goals included strengthening its role as the protector of Eastern Christians in the Balkans, such as in Serbia. The official government position was to focus on consolidating the gains made during the exhausting Balkan War and to avoid further conflicts. Historians have cautioned that taken together, the preceding crises should not be seen as an argument that a European war was inevitable in 1914. . Not for a second do I deny the sacrifice made by the young men on all sides in that ghastly war. Did we behave like Angels on every occassion? Thus, diplomatic overtures conducted after the mobilizations had begun were ignored. So many young Frenchmen died that the population of France actually fell between 1918 and 1939 due to a lack of births. ", Clark concluded, "In the minds of many statesmen, the hope for a short war and the fear of a long one seemed to have cancelled each other out, holding at bay a fuller appreciation of the risks."[103]. (Clark even casts a baleful glance at Italy, whose 1911 invasion of Libya sparked a feeding frenzy on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire.) Can Nigeria's election result be overturned? If they were lucky they would avoid a big offensive, and much of the time conditions might be better than at home. The UK lost four or five times as many men in the brutal campaign as its imperial Anzac contingents. War came upon them like a thunderclap.. The genocides in Cambodia and Rwanda. All wars tell us something about the basest regions of human nature, the First World War (caustically named in 1918 by an English journalist who thought it would not be the last) more than most. This article explores the tactical, strategic, and political realities of the war, the extent to which the war was indeed characterised by stalemate in the trenches and strategic . [81] William Mulligen argues that Anglo-German antagonism was also about a clash of two political cultures as well as more traditional geopolitical and military concerns. That is compounded by historical arguments changing over time, particularly as classified historical archives become available, and as perspectives and ideologies of historians have changed. And the royal houses of Europe were almost all linked by blood. There is ample evidence to suggest that statesmen and military leaders thought the war would be lengthy and terrible and have profound political consequences. However, France was smaller than Germany in terms of population and industry and therefore many French felt insecure next to a more powerful neighbor. Technology advanced by leaps and bounds (cars and airplanes) Were we fighting either communists or fascists during the war? 10. They also downplay the impact of Weltpolitik and the Anglo-German naval race, which ended in 1911. World War 1: A Short Timeline Pre-1914. So begins the first chapter of the late historian John Keegan's The First World War. Russia initially agreed to avoid territorial changes, but later in 1912, it supported Serbia's demand for an Albanian port. But that was not caused by German expansionism. "[43] Between battles, a unit spent perhaps 10 days a month in the trench system and, of those, rarely more than three days right up on the front line. We are, this week, remembering one of the bloodiest battles of 1917, Passchendaele. Unlike Hitler in 1945, the German government did not insist on a hopeless, pointless struggle until the allies were in Berlin - a decision that saved countless lives, but was seized upon later to claim Germany never really lost. Cambridge University Press, 2017, p. 147, Hamilton, Richard F., and Holger H. Herwig. War was no longer noble, even as some of the men who fought it were noble beyond compare. Debate over the country that "started" the war and who bears the blame still continues. The French consensus was that war was inevitable. Moreover, France clearly stated that if, as a result of a conflict in the Balkans, war broke out between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, France would stand by Russia.
